Existential-humanistic
Existential-humanistic
Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943 posited that humans have
a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first
(food, water etc.) before higher-order needs can be met.[103]
Humanistic psychology, which has been influenced by
existentialism and phenomenology,[104] stresses free will and
self-actualization.[105] It emerged in the 1950s as a movement within academic
psychology, in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis.[106] The
humanistic approach seeks to view the whole person, not just fragmented parts
of the personality or isolated cognitions.[107] Humanistic psychology also
focuses on personal growth, self-identity, death, aloneness, and freedom. It
emphasizes subjective meaning, the rejection of determinism, and concern for
positive growth rather than pathology. Some founders of the humanistic school
of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a
hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered
therapy.
Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to
scientific study. Positive psychology is the study of factors which contribute
to human happiness and well-being, focusing more on people who are currently
healthy. In 2010, Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue
devoted to positive psychological interventions, such as gratitude journaling
and the physical expression of gratitude. It is, however, far from clear that
positive psychology is effective in making people happier.[108][109] Positive
psychological interventions have been limited in scope, but their effects are
thought to be somewhat better than placebo effects. The evidence, however, is
far from clear that interventions based on positive psychology increase human
happiness or resilience.[108][109]
Humanistic psychology is primarily an orientation toward the
whole of psychology rather than a distinct area or school. It stands for
respect for the worth of persons, respect for differences of approach,
open-mindedness as to acceptable methods, and interest in exploration of new
aspects of human behavior. As a "third force" in contemporary
psychology, it is concerned with topics having little place in existing
theories and systems: e.g., love, creativity, self, growth, organism, basic
need-gratification, self-actualization, higher values, being, becoming,
spontaneity, play, humor, affection, naturalness, warmth, ego-transcendence,
objectivity, autonomy, responsibility, meaning, fair-play, transcendental
experience, peak experience, courage, and related concepts.
Existential psychology emphasizes the need to understand a
client's total orientation towards the world. Existential psychology is opposed
to reductionism, behaviorism, and other methods that objectify the
individual.[105] In the 1950s and 1960s, influenced by philosophers Søren
Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger, psychoanalytically trained American
psychologist Rollo May helped to develop existential psychology. Existential
psychotherapy, which follows from existential psychology, is a therapeutic
approach that is based on the idea that a person's inner conflict arises from
that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence. Swiss
psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may also
be said to belong to the existential school.[111] Existential psychologists
tend to differ from more "humanistic" psychologists in the former's
relatively neutral view of human nature and relatively positive assessment of
anxiety.[112] Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of
death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths
and narratives; meaning can be deepened by the acceptance of free will, which
is requisite to living an authentic life, albeit often with anxiety with regard
to death.
Personality
Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns
of behavior, thought, and emotion. Theories of personality vary across
different psychological schools of thought. Each theory carries different assumptions
about such features as the role of the unconscious and the importance of
childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic
interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego.[116] By contrast, trait theorists
have developed taxonomies of personality constructs
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